Bio

• 2007 - 2010, Tallinn University of Technology, BSc (virtualisation)

• 2011 - 2012, University of Cambridge, MPhil (computational effects)

• 2012 - 2017, University of Edinburgh, PhD (effects & dependent types)
  

• 2011, Tallinn University of Technology, Research Intern
                                                     (model-based testing & container datatypes)

• 2014, Microsoft Research Silicon Valley, Research Intern (big data)

• 2016, Microsoft Research Redmond, Research Intern (F*)
  

• 2017 - 2018, Inria Paris, PostDoc (F*)

• 2018 - 2019 , University of Ljubljana, PostDoc (effects & F*)

• 2019 - . . . , University of Ljubljana, Marie Curie Fellow (effects & F*)

Plan

• Lecture

  • Crash course in program specification and verification

  • What is F*?

  • Verification of purely functional and stateful programs in F*

  • Highlights of other F* features
    

• Exercise class

  • Interactive live-coding and more F* examples

  • F* applied to writing verified embedded code for IoT devices
    

• Interested in doing a dissertation in this area?   ==>   @Juhan   &   @me

Specification and Verification

Program specification

• Consider a simple purely functional list reversal

  let rec rev #a (l:list a) : list a =
    match l with
    | []     -> []
    | hd::tl -> append (rev tl) [hd]

Program specification ctd.

• Now consider a simple stateful list reversal

  let rec srev #a (l:ref (list a)) : unit =
    match !l with
    | []     -> ()
    | hd::tl -> l := tl; srev tl; l := (append !l [hd])

Program verification

Verifying a program is to show that it satisfies its specification, e.g.,

What is F*?

Program verification: Shall the twain ever meet?

• Left side: very expressive logics, interactive proving, tactics

  • but mostly only purely functional programming
    
    

• Right side: effectful programming, SMT-based automation

  • but only very weak logics

Bridging the air gap: F*

• Functional programming language with effects
  • like F#, OCaml, Haskell, …

    let incr = fun (r:ref a) -> r := !r + 1

    but with a much richer type system

F* in action, at scale

• Functional programming language with effects

  • F* is programmed in F*, but not (yet) verified

• Semi-automated verification system

  • Project Everest: verify and deploy new, efficient HTTPS stack
    • miTLS: Verified reference implementation of TLS
    • HACL*: High-Assurance Crypto Library (used in Firefox, Wireguard VPN, Zinc kernel crypto library, Tezos and Concordium blockchains)
    • Vale: Verified Assembly Language for Everest
  • Verified embedded code for IoT devices (WIP with Juhan and Fabricio)

• Proof assistant based on dependent types

  • Fallback when SMT fails; also for mechanized metatheory
    • Wys*: Verified DSL for secure multi-party computations
    • ReVerC: Verified compiler to reversible circuits
  • Meta-F* (metaprogramming and tactics) increasingly used in Everest

How to use F*?

Using F*

• Two kinds of F* files

  • A.fsti - interface file for module called A (can be omitted)

  • A.fst - source code file for module called A

  $ fstar.exe Ackermann.fst
  
  Verified module: Ackermann (429 milliseconds)
  All verification conditions discharged successfully

  $ fstar.exe Ackermann.fst --odir out-dir --codegen OCaml

Verifying Purely Functional Programs in F*

The functional core of F*

• Recursive functions

  val factorial : nat -> nat
  
  let rec factorial n =
    if n = 0 then 1 else n * (factorial (n - 1))

• (Simple) inductive datatypes and pattern matching

  type list (a:Type) =
    | Nil  : list a
    | Cons : hd:a -> tl:list a -> list a
  
  let rec map (f:'a -> 'b) (x:list 'a) : list 'b = 
    match x with
    | Nil      -> Nil
    | Cons h t -> Cons (f h) (map f t)

• Lambda abstractions

  map (fun x -> x + 42) [1;2;3]

Refinement types

type nat = x:int{x >= 0}                      (* general form x:t{phi x} *)

• Refinements introduced by type annotations (code unchanged)

  val factorial : nat -> nat
  let rec factorial n = if n = 0 then 1 else n * (factorial (n - 1))

• Logical obligations discharged by SMT (for else branch, simplified)

  n >= 0, n <> 0 |= n - 1 >= 0
  n >= 0, n <> 0, (factorial (n - 1)) >= 0 |= n * (factorial (n - 1)) >= 0

• Refinements eliminated by subtyping: nat <: int

  let i : int = factorial 42         let f : x:nat{x > 0} -> int = factorial

• Refinement formulae (phi) built from standard logical connectives

  • = , <> , && , || , not , ...   (bool-valued)
  • == , =!= , /\ , \/ , ~ , forall , exists , ...   (prop-valued)

Dependent types

• Dependent function types aka -types

  val incr : x:int -> y:int{x < y}
  let incr x = x + 1

• Can express pre- and postconditions of pure functions

  val incr' : x:nat{odd x} -> y:nat{even y}

• Indexed inductive datatypes and implicit arguments (#-notation)

  type vec (a:Type) : nat -> Type =
    | Nil  : vec a 0
    | Cons : #n:nat -> hd:a -> tl:vec a n -> vec a (n + 1)
  
  let rec map (#n:nat) (#a #b:Type) (f:a -> b) (as:vec a n) : vec b n =
    match as with
    | Nil        -> Nil
    | Cons hd tl -> Cons (f hd) (map f tl)

Inductive families + refinement types

• In Coq or Agda, we have to carry around explicit proofs, e.g.,

  type vec (a:Type) : nat -> Type =
    | Nil  : vec a 0
    | Cons : #n:nat -> hd:a -> tl:vec a n -> vec a (n + 1)
  
  let rec lookup #a #n (as:vec a n) (i:nat) (p:i `less_than` n) : a = ...

• Combining vec with refinement types is much more convenient

  let rec lookup #a #n (as:vec a n) (i:nat{i < n}) : a =
    match as with
    | Cons hd tl -> if i = 0 then hd else lookup tl (i - 1)

• Often even more convenient to use simple lists + refinement types

  let rec length #a (as:list a) : nat =
    match as with
    | []       -> 0
    | hd :: tl -> 1 + length tl
    
  let rec lookup #a (as:list a) (i:nat{i < (length as)}) : a =
    match as with
    | hd :: tl -> if i = 0 then hd else lookup tl (i - 1)

Total functions in F*

• The F* functions we saw so far were all total

• Tot effect (default) = no side-effects, terminates on all inputs

  (* val factorial : nat -> nat *)
  
  val factorial : nat -> Tot nat
  
  let rec factorial n =
    if n = 0 then 1 else n * (factorial (n - 1))

• Quiz: How about giving this weaker type to factorial?

  val factorial : int -> Tot int

  let rec factorial n = if n = 0 then 1 else n * (factorial (n - 1))
                                                             ^^^^^
  Subtyping check failed; expected type (x:int{(x << n)}); got type int

The divergence effect (Dv)

• We might not want to prove all code terminating

  val factorial : int -> Dv int

• Some useful code really is not always terminating

  • evaluator for lambda terms

    val eval : exp -> Dv exp
    let rec eval e = 
      match e with
      | App (Lam x e1) e2 -> eval (subst x e2 e1)
      | App e1 e2         -> eval (App (eval e1) e2)
      | Lam x e1          -> Lam x (eval e1)
      | _                 -> e
    
    let main () = eval (App (Lam 0 (App (Var 0) (Var 0)))
                            (Lam 0 (App (Var 0) (Var 0))))

    ./Divergence.exe

  • servers
  • …

Effect encapsulation (Tot and Dv)

• Pure code cannot call potentially divergent code

• Only (!) pure code can appear in specifications

  val factorial : int -> Dv int
  
  type tau = x:int{x = factorial (-1)}

  type tau = x:int{x = factorial (-1)}
                   ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
  Expected a pure expression; got an expression ... with effect "DIV"

• Sub-effecting: Tot t <: Dv t

• So, divergent code can include pure code

  incr 2 + factorial (-1) : Dv int

Tot and Dv are just two effects amongst many

Effect encapsulation (Tot and GTot)

• Ghost effect for code used only in specifications

  val sel : #a:Type -> heap -> ref a -> GTot a

• Sub-effecting: Tot t <: GTot t

• BUT NOT (!): GTot t <: Tot t (holds for non-informative types)

• So, (informative) ghost code cannot be used in total functions

  let f (g:unit -> GTot nat) : Tot (n:nat{n = g ()}) = g ()

  Computed type "n:nat{n = g ()}" and effect "GTot"
  is not compatible with the annotated type "n:nat{n = g ()}" effect "Tot"

• But total functions can appear in ghost code (regardless of their type)

  let f (g:unit -> Tot nat) : GTot (n:nat{n = g ()}) = g ()

Verifying pure programs

Variant #1: intrinsically (at definition time)

• Using refinement types (saw this already)

  val factorial : nat -> Tot nat              (* type nat = x:int{x >= 0} *)

• Can equivalently use pre- and postconditions for this

  val factorial : x:int -> Pure int (requires (x >= 0))
                                    (ensures  (fun y -> y >= 0))

• Each F* computation type is of the form
  • effect (e.g. Pure)       result type (e.g. int)       spec. (e.g. pre and post)
    
    
• Tot is just an abbreviation

  Tot t = Pure t (requires True) (ensures (fun _ -> True))

Verifying pure programs

Variant #2: extrinsically using SMT-backed lemmas

let rec append (#a:Type) (xs ys:list a) : Tot (list a) = 
  match xs with
  | []       -> ys
  | x :: xs' -> x :: append xs' ys

let rec lemma_append_length (#a:Type) (xs ys:list a) 
  : Pure unit
      (requires True)
      (ensures  (fun _ -> length (append xs ys) = length xs + length ys)) = 
      
  match xs with
  | []       -> ()          
 (* nil-VC: len (app [] ys) = len [] + len ys                            *)
 
  | x :: xs' -> lemma_append_length xs' ys
 (*          len (app xs' ys) = len xs' + len ys                         *)
 (* cons-VC:           ==> len (app (x::xs') ys) = len (x::xs') + len ys *)

• Convenient syntactic sugar: the Lemma effect

  Lemma property = Pure unit (requires True) (ensures (fun _ -> property))

Often lemmas are unavoidable

let snoc l h = append l [h]

let rec rev #a (l:list a) : Tot (list a) =
  match l with
  | []     -> []
  | hd::tl -> snoc (rev tl) hd

val lemma_rev_snoc : #a:Type -> l:list a -> h:a ->
                                        Lemma (rev (snoc l h) == h::rev l)

let rec lemma_rev_snoc (#a:Type) l h =
  match l with
  | []     -> ()
  | hd::tl -> lemma_rev_snoc tl h

val lemma_rev_involutive : #a:Type -> l:list a -> Lemma (rev (rev l) == l)

let rec lemma_rev_involutive (#a:Type) l =
  match l with
  | []     -> ()
  | hd::tl -> lemma_rev_involutive tl; lemma_rev_snoc (rev tl) hd

Often lemmas are unavoidable (but SMT can help)

let snoc l h = append l [h]

let rec rev #a (l:list a) : Tot (list a) =
  match l with
  | []     -> []
  | hd::tl -> snoc (rev tl) hd

val lemma_rev_snoc : #a:Type -> l:list a -> h:a -> 
                                        Lemma (rev (snoc l h) == h::rev l)
                                        [SMTPat (rev (snoc l h))]
let rec lemma_rev_snoc (#a:Type) l h =
  match l with
  | []     -> ()
  | hd::tl -> lemma_rev_snoc tl h

val lemma_rev_involutive : #a:Type -> l:list a -> Lemma (rev (rev l) == l)

let rec lemma_rev_involutive (#a:Type) l =
  match l with
  | []     -> ()
  | hd::tl -> lemma_rev_involutive tl (*; lemma_rev_snoc (rev tl) hd*)

Verifying potentially divergent programs

The only variant: intrinsically (at definition time)

• Using refinement types

  val factorial : nat -> Dv nat

• Or the Div computation type (pre- and postconditions)

  val eval_closed : e:exp -> Div exp
                                 (requires (closed e))
                                 (ensures  (fun e' -> Lam? e' /\ closed e'))
  let rec eval_closed e =
    match e with           (* notice there is no match case for variables *)
    | App e1 e2 ->
        let Lam e1' = eval_closed e1 in
        below_subst_beta 0 e1' e2;
        eval_closed (subst (sub_beta e2) e1')
    | Lam e1 -> Lam e1

• Dv is also just an abbreviation

  Dv t = Div t (requires True) (ensures (fun _ -> True))

Recap: Functional core of F*

• Variant of dependent type theory

  • , , inductives, matches, universe polymorphism, …

• General recursion and semantic termination check

  • potential non-termination is an effect!

• Refinements

  • Refined value types:
    • x:t{phi x}
  • Refined computation types:
    • Pure t pre post
    • Div t pre post
  • refinements computationally and proof irrelevant, discharged by SMT

• Subtyping and sub-effecting (<:)

• Standard logical connectives (==, /\, \/, forall , exists , ...)

Verifying Stateful Programs in F*

Verifying stateful programs

• The St effect—programming with garbage-collected references

  val incr : r:ref int -> St unit
  
  let incr r = r := !r + 1

• Hoare logic-style preconditions and postconditions with ST

  val incr : r:ref int -> 
    ST unit (requires (fun h0      -> True))                        
            (ensures  (fun h0 _ h2 -> sel h2 r == sel h0 r + 1 /\ 
                                      modifies !{r} h0 h2))

  • precondition (requires) is a predicate on initial states
  • postcondition (ensures) relates initial states, results, and final states

• St is again just an abbreviation

  St t = ST t (requires True) (ensures (fun _ -> True))

• Sub-effecting: Pure <: ST and Div <: ST (partial correctness)

Heap and ST interfaces (much simplified)

module Heap
  val heap : Type
  val ref : Type -> Type

  val sel : #a:Type -> heap -> ref a -> GTot a
  val addr_of : #a:Type -> ref a -> GTot nat
  val contains : #a:Type -> heap -> ref a -> Type0

  let modifies (s:FStar.TSet.set nat) (h0 h1 : heap) = 
    forall a (r:ref a) . (h0 `contains` r /\ ~(addr_of r `mem` s))
                                                  ==> sel h1 r == sel h0 r

module ST

  val alloc : #a:Type -> init:a -> 
    ST (ref a) (requires (fun _ -> True))
               (ensures  (fun h0 r h1 -> 
                  modifies !{} h0 h1 /\ sel h1 r == init /\ fresh r h0 h1))

  val (!) : #a:Type -> r:ref a -> 
    ST a (requires (fun _       -> True))
         (ensures  (fun h0 x h1 -> h0 == h1 /\ x == sel h0 r))

  val (:=) : #a:Type -> r:ref a -> v:a -> 
    ST unit (requires (fun _      -> True))
            (ensures  (fun h0 _ h1 -> modifies !{r} h0 h1 /\ sel h1 r == v))

How does F* verify incr (intuition)

val incr : r:ref int -> 
  ST unit (requires (fun _ -> True))
          (ensures  (fun h0 _ h2 -> modifies !{r} h0 h2 /\ 
                                    sel h2 r == sel h0 r + 1))

let incr r = r := !r + 1

Typing rule for let / sequencing (intuition)

val incr : r:ref int -> 
  ST unit 
   (requires (fun _ -> True))
   (ensures  (fun h0 _ h2 -> 
               exists h1 x. h0 == h1 /\ x == sel h0 r /\               //(!)
                            modifies !{r} h1 h2 /\ sel h2 r == x + 1)) //(:=)
let incr r = 
  let x = !r in 
  r := x + 1

G |- e1 : ST t1 (requires (fun h0 -> pre))
                (ensures  (fun h0 x1 h1 -> post))
                  
G, x1:t1 |- e2 : ST t2 (requires (fun h1 -> exists h0 . post))
                       (ensures  (fun h1 x2 h2 -> post'))
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
G |- let x1 = e1 in e2 : ST t2 (requires (fun h0 -> pre))
                               (ensures  (fun h x2 h2 ->
                                             exists x1 h1 . post /\ post'))

Reference swapping (hand proof sketch)

val swap : r1:ref int -> r2:ref int -> 
  ST unit (requires (fun _       -> True))
          (ensures  (fun h0 _ h3 -> modifies !{r1,r2} h0 h3 /\
                                    sel h3 r2 == sel h0 r1 /\ 
                                    sel h3 r1 == sel h0 r2))
let swap r1 r2 =
  let t = !r1 in (* Know (P1) *)
  r1 := !r2;     (* Know (P2) *)
  r2 := t        (* Know (P3) *)

(* (P1): exists h1 t. h0 == h1 /\ t == sel h0 r1 *)
(* (P2): exists h2. modifies !{r1} h1 h2 /\ sel h2 r1 == sel h1 r2 *)
(* (P3): modifies !{r2} h2 h3 /\ sel h3 r2 == t *)

(* `modifies !{r1,r2} h0 h3` follows directly from transitivity of modifies *)

(* `sel h3 r2 == sel h0 r1` follows immediately from (P1) and (P3) *)

(* Still to show: `sel h3 r1 == sel h0 r2`
   From (P2) we know that  `sel h2 r1 == sel h1 r2` (A)

   From (P1) we know that  h0 == h1
     which directly gives us  sel h1 r2 == sel h0 r2 (B)

   From (P3) we know that  modifies !{r2} h2 h3
     which by definition gives us  sel h2 r1 == sel h3 r1 (C)

   We conclude by transitivity from (A)+(B)+(C) *)

Integer reference swapping (the funny way)

val swap_add_sub : r1:ref int -> r2:ref int -> 
  ST unit (requires (fun _ -> addr_of r1 <> addr_of r2 ))
          (ensures  (fun h0 _ h1 -> modifies !{r1,r2} h0 h1 /\
                                    sel h1 r1 == sel h0 r2 /\ 
                                    sel h1 r2 == sel h0 r1))
let swap_add_sub r1 r2 =
  r1 := !r1 + !r2;
  r2 := !r1 - !r2;
  r1 := !r1 - !r2

• Correctness of this variant relies on r1 and r2 not being aliased

• … and on int being unbounded (mathematical) integers
  
  

But you don't escape having to come up with invariants

Stateful Counting: 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + …

let rec count_st_aux (r:ref nat) (n:nat) 
  : ST unit (requires (fun _       -> True))
            (ensures  (fun h0 _ h1 -> modifies !{r} h0 h1 /\
                                     (* to ensure !{} in count_st *)
                                      sel h1 r == sel h0 r + n 
                                     (* sel h1 r == n would be wrong *))) =
  if n > 0 then (r := !r + 1; 
                 count_st_aux r (n - 1))

let rec count_st (n:nat) 
  : ST nat (requires (fun _       -> True))
           (ensures  (fun h0 x h1 -> modifies !{} h0 h1 /\
                                     x == n)) =
  let r = alloc 0 in 
  count_st_aux r n; 
  !r

• You'll see more involved invariants in the lab exercises

Summary: Verifying Stateful Programs

• ML-style garbage-collected references

  val heap : Type
  val ref  : Type -> Type
  
  val sel     : #a:Type -> heap -> ref a -> GTot a
  val addr_of : #a:Type -> ref a -> GTot nat
  
  val modifies : s:set nat -> h0:heap -> h1:heap -> Type0

• St effect for simple ML-style programming

  let incr (r:ref int) : St unit = r := !r + 1

• ST effect for pre- and postcondition based (intrinsic) reasoning

  ST unit (requires (fun h0      -> True))                        
          (ensures  (fun h0 _ h2 -> modifies !{r} h0 h2 /\ sel h2 r == n))

• But that's not all there is to F*'s memory models!

  • monotonicity, regions, heaps-and-stacks, resources and sep. logic

Highlights of Other F* Features

Low*: verifying low-level C code

Moto: The code (Low*) is low-level but the verification (F*) is not

let f (): Stack UInt64.t (requires (fun h0      -> True))
                         (ensures  (fun h0 r h1 -> r = 43UL))
                         
  = push_frame ();                                   (* pushing a new stack frame *)
    
    let b = LowStar.Buffer.alloca 1UL 64ul in
    assert (b.(42ul) = 1UL);                (* high-level reasoning in F*'s logic *)

    b.(42ul) <- b.(42ul) +^ 42UL;
    let r = b.(42ul) in
      
    pop_frame ();                     (* popping the stack frame we pushed above, *)
                                    (* necessary for establishing Stack invariant *)
    r

uint64_t f()
{
  uint64_t b[64U];
    
  for (uint32_t _i = 0U; _i < (uint32_t)64U; ++_i)
    b[_i] = (uint64_t)1U;
      
  b[42U] = b[42U] + (uint64_t)42U;
  uint64_t r = b[42U];
  
  return r;
}

F* has an extensible effect system

• In addition to Tot, St, …, users can define their own (monadic) effects

• Axiomatically (PLDI 2013)

  • Only signatures of effect operations.
  • Implementation in code extraction.

• Dijkstra Monads For Free (POPL 2017)

  • User provides a monadic effect definition
  • F* then derives the effect and the specification calculus

• Dijkstra Monads For All (ICFP 2019)

  • User defines both the computational and specification monads.
  • Comp. and spec. monads are related by effect observations.

• Layered Effects (draft paper 2020)

  • New effects on top of existing ones (like with monads in Haskell).

Meta-F* - a tactics and metaprogramming framework for F*

• Tactics are just another F* effect (proof state + exceptions)

• Can access the proof state, can introspect and synthesise F* terms

• Run using the normalizer (slow) or compiled to native OCaml plugins

• Uses: discharging VCs, massaging VCs, synthesizing terms, typeclasses

Tactics can discharge verification conditions (replacing SMT)

Tactics can massage verification conditions (complementing SMT)

Tactics can synthesize F* terms (metaprogramming)

Tactics have also been used to extend F* with typeclasses

F*

• An ML-style effectful functional programming language

• A semi-automated SMT-based program verifier

• An interactive dependently typed proof assistant
  

• Used successfully in security and crypto verification

  • miTLS: F*-verified reference implementation of TLS

  • HACL*: F*-verified crypto (used in Firefox, Wireguard, …)

  • Vale: F*-verified assembly language
    

Bonus: Monotonic state

F*'s Memory Models are Based on Monotonicity

• ‘Containment for free’ for garbage collected references

  val recall_contains #a (r:ref a) 
    : ST unit (requires (fun _       -> True))
              (ensures  (fun h0 _ h1 -> h0 == h1 /\
                                        h1 `contains` r))

• val (!) : #a:Type -> r:ref a -> 
    ST a (requires (fun _       -> True))
         (ensures  (fun h0 x h1 -> h0 == h1 /\
                                   x == sel h0 r))
  
  val (:=) : #a:Type -> r:ref a -> v:a -> 
    ST unit (requires (fun _      -> True))
            (ensures  (fun h0 _ h1 -> modifies !{r} h0 h1 /\
                                      sel h1 r == v))

• Moreover, ref a is actually a mref a rel with a trivial rel

  val mref : a:Type -> rel:preorder a -> Type
  
  let ref a = mref a (fun _ _ -> True)

Monotonic References mref a rel

• Such monotonic references also come with a modal operator

  val token #a #rel (r:mref a rel) : (a -> Type0) -> Type0

• And corresponding introduction and elimination rules (stateful progs.)

  val witness_token #a #rel (r:mref a rel) (p:(a -> Type0))
  
    : ST unit (requires (fun h0      -> p (sel h0 r) /\ stable p rel))
              (ensures  (fun h0 _ h1 -> h0 == h1 /\ token r p))
  
  val recall_token #a #rel (r:mref a rel) (p:(a -> Type0))
  
    : ST unit (requires (fun _       -> token r p))
              (ensures  (fun h0 _ h1 -> h0 == h1 /\ p (sel h1 r)))

• Enabling the following useful verification pattern

    let p (x:nat) = x > 0 in                       (* assuming (r : mref nat `<=`) *)       
  
    r := !r + 1;  witness r p;  black_box r;  recall r p;  assert (p !r)

• Examples: counters, logs, network traffic history, state continuity, …